پایکاه مقالات علوم ارتباطات اجتماعی

ما انسان ها افرادي منزوي و خودكفا نيستيم و در خلأ زندگي نمي كنيم، بلكه افراد ي هستيم كه در ميان مردم زندگي مي كنيم و از طريق ارتباط با ديگران و جلب و جذب حمايت و همكاري با آنها به اهداف مان مي رسيم. اشخاص غيرحقيقي (مؤسسات، سازمان ها، نهادها، تشكل ها و...) نيز مانند اشخاص حقيقي نيازمند ارتباط با افراد و مؤسسات ديگر هستند تا به اهدافي كه براي آن طراحي شده اند دست يابند. نوعي از تأثيرگذاري و تأثيرپذيري براي ادامه حيات افراد و سازمان ها جزء اصلي واقعيت هاي آنهاست. افراد بشر از همان ابتداي تاريخ  سعي در شناخت افكار جمعي و فردي يكديگر داشته اند تا يكديگر را تحت تأثير قرار دهند و به خواست هاي خود دست يابند. در عصر ما همواره با گسترش رسانه هاي همگاني و با سواد شدن عامه مردم، نيروي تازه اي پاي به صحنه گذاشته است كه بدان افكار عمومي مي گوييم. اين نيروي تازه كه تجلي اراده مردم و خواست آنهاست، در تمام جهان به ويژه در كشورهاي داراي نظام پارلماني و مردمي نقش مهمي در شكل دادن به حوادث و رخدادهاي سياسي و اقتصادي و اجتماعي دارد و كمتر دولتي است كه بتواند از رأي آن سرپيچي كند و يا آن را به حساب نياورد. اين واقعيتي است كه همراه با تحولات عظيمي كه در جوامع بشري از جهت ارتباطي و تكنولوژيك و اقتصادي و اجتماعي و سياسي رخ داده است، مردم بيدار و هشيار شده اند و برآنند كه در شكل دادن به سرنوشت خود مشاركت كنند. با توجه به اين هشياري و ميل روزافزون مردم به مشاركت، امروزه تصميم گيران اين نيرو را در محاسبات خود به حساب مي آورند. امروز هيچ برنامه اي و سياستي، هرچند از جهت فني به درست تنظيم شده باشد، بدون حمايت و مشاركت مردم ميسر نمي شود. از اين جهت، شناخت افكار عمومي و ارزيابي آن يكي از نيازهاي اساسي تمام دولت ها و سازمان هايي است كه با مردم و افكار عمومي سروكار دارند.با توجه به اين واقعيت، در اين مقاله سعي شده است كه به اجمال بخش هاي مربوط به پيشينه و تعاريف افكار عمومي، شكل گيري و انواع آن، مورد بررسي قرار گيرد.
حمله ايتاليا به اتيوپي قبل از جنگ جهاني دوم- حمله انگلستان، فرانسه، صهيونيسم به مصر در سال ،۱۹۵۶ نخستين علايم پيدايش افكار عمومي را نويد داد زيرا واكنش هاي گروهي و خود به خود متعددي آشكار شد و اين دو حمله را محكوم ساخت.
پيدايش روزنامه هاي كثيرالانتشار در قرن نوزدهم سبب شكل گيري و پيدايش افكار عمومي شد. وسايل ارتباط جمعي (نوشتاري- سمعي- سمعي و بصري) در دهه ۱۹۴۰ و ۱۹۵۰ ميلادي نه تنها تنوع يافتند بلكه گسترش پيدا كردند. پديده افكار عمومي در دهه ۵۰ به بعد با رشد راديو و تلويزيون قدرت بيشتري يافت به طوري كه دولت ها براي كنترل آن دست به كار شدند. به همين ترتيب در دوره بعد از ۱۹۶۰ با پيدايش تكنولوژي هاي جديد ارتباطي سبب استقلال هرچه بيشتر افكار عمومي و نهايتاً تقويت آن شدند. اما اين تغيير جديد در صنعت ارتباطات خود را به شكل گسترده تري بعد از انقلاب كامپيوتري دهه ۷۰ و پيدايش كامپيوترهاي شخصي در دهه ۸۰ نشان داد. آنچه اين تغييرات جديد را از تغييرات گذشته در صنعت ارتباطات مجزا مي كند سرعت انتقال اطلاعات در كوتاه ترين زمان است. چنين سرعت انتقالي كمك مي كند، افكار در كوتاه ترين زمان در قشر وسيع تري انتشار يابند. از دهه ۸۰ به بعد روند غيرتوده اي شدن وسايل ارتباطي آغاز شد تا افراد مسئوليت بيشتري در مشاركت در
افكار عمومي پيدا كنند و امروزه كامپيوترهاي شخصي و اينترنت، پست الكترونيكي اين امكان را فراهم كرده تا دسترسي به اطلاعات درباره موضوع هاي دلخواه بسيار سهل شود.بنابر اين، تاريخ شكل گيري افكار عمومي در قرن ۱۹ و تقويت آن در اواخر قرن بيستم نشان مي دهد كه همبستگي محسوسي بين تغييرات افكار عمومي و تغييرات وسايل ارتباطي پيدا شده است. همان طور كه كريستنسن و مك ويليامز مي گويند: پديده افكار هميشه وجود داشته. ارتباط بين افكار عمومي و وسايل ارتباطي امروز بيش از هر زماني تقويت شده است. اين امر مرهون تلاش دولت ها در دوره پس از جنگ جهاني دوم بود كه سعي در شناخت و كنترل افكار عمومي كردند.

مفهوم افكار عمومي
افكار عمومي واژه اي است كه از قرن ها پيش مورد استفاده قرار مي گرفته است. بررسي تاريخ واژه افكار عمومي نشان مي دهد كه چيزي است معادل اراده مردم، احساسات عوام، عقايد مردم، روح ميهني، باورها و اعتقادات مردم، حمايت عامه، خواست عموم و غيره. مطالعه علمي افكار عمومي از اواسط قرن بيستم به بعد شكل گرفت و توسعه يافت زيرا مجموعه شرايطي فراهم شد كه اين كار را هم امكان پذير ساخت و هم ضروري.
افكار عمومي به عنوان يك پديده تازه ناگهان ظاهر نشد بلكه برعكس در گذشته هم اين پديده براي متفكران و سياستمداران مطرح بوده است. ارسطو به نقش افكار عمومي به مثابه حامي قدرت حاكم يا عاملي براي سرنگوني اش اشاره كرده است. ماكياولي در كتاب شهريار مي نويسد: اين ملت است كه سزاوار توجه است، زيرا كه از همه قويتر و نيرومندتر است. ويليام تمپل نظريه افكار عمومي را به مثابه منشاء قدرت طرح ريزي مي كند و مي نويسد: «افكار عمومي بنياد و اساس هر حكومتي را تشكيل مي دهد... در واقع مي توان گفت كه هر حكومتي به نسبتي كه افكار عمومي از آن حمايت مي كند، قوي يا ضعيف مي شود.برخي از پژوهشگران علوم سياسي و اجتماعي اعتقاد دارند كه ژان ژاك روسو اولين متفكري است كه در آثارش به افكار عمومي و آثار اجتماعي و سياسي آن پرداخته است. وي خط مشي هاي دولت را نشأت گرفته از افكار عمومي مي داند و اعلام مي دارد كه همه دولت ها اساساً بر افكار عمومي متكي هستند تا بر قانون يا زور. ژان ژاك روسو آينده را در فرمول مشهور خود، قرارداد اجتماعي ترسيم كرد، كه شعار كشورهاي دموكراسي مدار شد و باقي ماند. تنها اراده عمومي است كه مي تواند دولت را هدايت كند.
«آلفرد سووي»  افكار عمومي را مجموعه تغييرات و تفسيرات و ارزيابي نسبت به حوادث و وقايع روز معرفي مي كند كه به دو حالت تجلي مي كند: تصورات عمومي و تصديقات عمومي.
طبق تعاريف گوناگوني كه از افكار عمومي ارايه شد، تعريف مربوط به انجمن جهاني افكار عمومي را براي بيان مقاصدمان انتخاب مي كنيم:« افكار عمومي، مجموعه عقايد افراد يك جامعه نسبت به يك موضوع است كه آن افراد درباره آن موضوع، داراي منافع و علايق مشترك هستند ».

شكل گيري افكار عمومي
فراگرد شكل گيري افكار عمومي عوامل بسياري را در برمي گيرد. برخي از اين عوامل اجتماعي و فرهنگي هستند كه محيط پيراموني انسان ها را تشكيل مي دهد و

به تدريج جزيي از خود آنها مي شود. عوامل ديگري هستند كه تركيب ارثي افراد را تشكيل مي دهند. عوامل زيستي- رواني و فرهنگي اجتماعي به طور دائم در كنش و واكنش با يكديگر هستند.همه پژوهشگران افكار عمومي اتفاق نظر دارند كه افكار عمومي پيرامون مسأله، موضوع يا موردي تشكيل مي شود. به عبارت ديگر در آغاز بايد مسأله، موضوع يا موردي وجود داشته باشد كه در آن زمينه افكار عمومي تشكيل شود. مسأله موضوع و موردي كه اساس افكار عمومي را تشكيل مي دهد بايد داراي ماهيتي باشد كه افراد، طبقات، اقشار و گروه هاي يك جامعه، نگاه ها و ديدگاه هاي خاص خويش را نسبت به آن داشته باشند. وجود تفاوت در عقيده و نظر نسبت به مسأله، عاملي كليدي در تشكيل افكار عمومي است. همگان يا عموم پس از طرح موضوع و مسأله، بايستي كه يك جمع يا گروهي از انسان ها وجود داشته باشند كه نسبت به آن مسأله، موضوع و مورد به نوعي احساس علاقه وابستگي، نفع، توجه و ارتباط نمايند. در حقيقت اين افراد«عموم »افكار عمومي هستند. به عبارت ديگر همگان و عموم،افرادي هستند كه در اثر احساس علاقه و منافع نسبت به موضوع به صورت جمع و گروه متشكل مي شوند.

انواع و اشكال افكار عمومي
۱- افكار عمومي ملي: موضع اكثريت افراد ملت يا گروهي آگاه از ميان آنان در قبال يك قضيه اساسي و عمومي است كه محل گفت وگو و بحث بوده باشد. اين شكل از افكار عمومي با دولت در ارتباط بوده و هر نظام سياسي حاكم برآن اتكاء دارد. افكار عمومي داخل هر كشوري كه در قبال مشكل اساسي و مهمي كه آن ملت را آزار مي دهد تشكيل دهنده افكار عمومي ملي است.
۲- افكار عمومي نژادي و قومي: افكار عمومي حاكم بر يك يا چند ملت كه عادت و وجوه مشترك نيرومندي دارند مانند زبان يا تاريخ، منافع اقتصادي واحد... در قبال موضوع مهم در مرحله اي از زمان است كه اين افكار عمومي شكل مي گيرد.
۳- افكار عمومي منطقه اي: بين چند ملت در قبال يك قضيه مهم در يك زمان منتشر مي گردد. اگرچه اين ملت ها از لحاظ تمدن و زبان با هم اختلاف داشته باشند. با اين حال اين مشكل و قضيه مهم مرزهاي جغرافيايي آنها را درنورديده و اهداف و مصالح مشترك آنها را با يكديگر مربوط ساخته است.
۴- افكار عمومي جهاني: هر تعبير و بيان خود به خودي و غيرارادي از نقطه نظر معيني است كه براي اثبات وجودش منحصر در جامعه محلي معيني نيست، بلكه از مرزهاي بين گروه هاي سياسي فراتر رفته تا توافق خاصي را بين طبقات يا گروه هايي كه به بيش از يك كشور وابسته اند بيان كند. خواه آن كشور در مجموع يك اجتماع جغرافيايي قرار گيرد يا به بيش از يك اجتماع جغرافيايي كشوري پيوسته و منتسب باشد.
<h1>Public opinion</h1>
We humans who are not isolated and self-sufficient and do not live in vacuum, but the people are the people who live and communicate with others and through recruitment support and cooperation with them can we reach our goals. Ghyrhqyqy persons (institutions, organizations, institutions, organizations and ...) as well as real persons in need with individuals and other institutions are the objectives for which are designed to achieve. Tasyrpzyry kind of influence and for survival of individuals and organizations the main part of their reality. Human history from the first attempt to identify collective and individual ideas to each other have to impress each other and to achieve their demands. In our era, always expanding mass media and the public to be educated, a new force to the foot has left the scene in which public opinion say. This new force that manifested the will of the people and asked them, all over the world especially in countries with parliamentary systems and people play an important role in shaping political and economic events and social events, and less state that it could vote to disobey and account or it faces defeat. The fact is that with the huge changes in human societies for the communication and technological, economic and social and political has occurred, people are awake and alert and drive to shape the destiny of their own participation. Due to the vigilance and the growing desire of people to participate, today this force decision makers in their calculations to take account of. Today, any program and policy, although the technical direction is set to true, without the support and participation of people is not possible. Hence, understanding public opinion and evaluation of the basic needs all governments and organizations and people that are vulnerable to public opinion. Due to this fact, in this paper which related to the history section of brevity and definitions of public opinion formation and its variants, must be examined.
Italy attacked Ethiopia before World War II - Attack of England, France, Zionism in Egypt, in 1956 the first signs of promise in the emergence of public opinion because their reactions to various groups and clear and both condemned the attack.
The emergence of newspapers in the nineteenth century because Ksyralantshar formation and the emergence of public opinion was. Mass media (written - audio - audio-visual) in the decades 1940 and 1950 AD, not only were diverse, but they spread. Phenomenon of public opinion since the 50's with the growth of radio and television gained power, so that governments work to control it were available. Thus during the period after 1960 with the emergence of new communication technologies cause more independent of public opinion and eventually strengthen it were. But the new changes in the communications industry to form wider after the computer revolution and the emergence of the 70 personal computers in the 80's showed. What this new changes from past changes in the telecom industry can separate the data transfer rate is the shortest time. Such speed will help, thoughts in the shortest time in the class gain a broader release. The 80 after a process Ghyrtvdh communications equipment began to be more responsibility on individuals to participate in
Today, public opinion and to find personal computers and the Internet, e-mail it possible to have access to information about favorite topics is very simple. Therefore, since the formation of public opinion in the 19th century and strengthened in the late twentieth century show that significant correlations between changes in public opinion and changes in communications equipment has been found. As Krystnsn Mc Williams and say: phenomenon of opinion always existed. The relationship between public opinion and communications equipment today more than ever has been strengthened. This owes to the government in the period after World War II was trying to understand them and control public opinion.

The concept of public opinion
Public opinion is a term from centuries ago, has been used. History of words shows that public opinion is something equivalent will of the people, feelings of Commons, public opinion, Patriotic spirit, faith and beliefs, people, public support, public demand and so on. Scientific study of public opinion since the mid-twentieth century was formed and developed set of circumstances, because this work was also made possible and necessary.
Public opinion as a recent phenomenon does not appear suddenly but rather the contrary in the past, thinkers and politicians for this phenomenon has been around. Aristotle to the role of public opinion as supportive factor for power or overthrow his ruling noted. Shahriar book Machiavelli writes: The people who deserve attention, because that is all the stronger and stronger. William Temple theory of public opinion as the power source can plan and writes: "public opinion foundation and basis of every government makes up ... In fact, we can say that every government to public opinion than it supports will be strong or weak. Some political and social science researchers believe that Jean-Jacques Rousseau is the first thinker who works to the public and social works and it has paid political. His government's policies stem from public opinion and said he knows that all governments rely primarily on public opinion to the law or force. Jean Jacques Rousseau famous formula in the future, the social contract can be drawn that the slogan of democratic countries, and remained in orbit. General will is the only state that can guidance.
"Alfred Svvy" public opinion, changes in collection and interpretation and evaluation of incidents and events to introduce the day that it manifested in two modes: public perceptions and public recognition.
According to various definitions of public opinion that was presented, the definition of public opinion about global forum for the expression Mqasdman to select: "public opinion, a collection of ideas than individuals in a society is a topic which people post about it, have interests and interests are common.

The formation of public opinion
Fragrd formation of public opinion on the covers of many factors. Some of these factors are social and cultural environment that makes up human beings and

Gradually be part of their own. Combination of other factors are hereditary form of people.Biological factors - psychological and social and cultural constantly in action and reaction with each other. All public opinion researchers agree that public opinion about the issue, topic or case will be formed. In other words, the issue must begin, subject or there is a case in which the field of public opinion is formed. Case basis and subject the issue of public opinion that makes up with nature must be individuals, classes, strata and groups within a society, and look at their particular views than it should. There are differences of opinion and comment than question, the key factor in the formation of public opinion. Everyone and generally after the issue of discussing and, should a gathering or group of people there are compared to the issue, issues about the sense of dependence on interest, interest, attention and to communicate. In fact, these people, "the public" of public opinion are. In other words, are public, people who feel the effects of interest and benefit to the subject to be gathered and gathering.

Forms of public opinion
1 - National public opinion: the majority position or group of citizens aware of their liability for the fundamental theorem and a general place of dialogue and discussion is. This form of public opinion in connection with the government and every political system has achieved master thoroughly. Public opinion within each country, which assumes an important problem and it will hurt the nation constituted national public opinion.
2 - racial and ethnic public opinion: public opinion governs one or more people who have a strong habit and common such as language or history, economic benefits unit ... Important step towards a time that public opinion is formed.
3 - Regional public opinion: between a few people towards an important case will be published at a time. Although these nations in terms of culture and language differences have together.However, this difficult and important cases Drnvrdydh their geographical borders and their common goals and interests related to each other has made.
4 - world public opinion: every interpretation and expression of spontaneous and involuntary from the point of view is certain to prove unique existence in the local community is not certain, but the boundaries between political groups went beyond the agreement between particular classes or groups that more than one country will depend on the expression. Whether a country's total geographical community or to be more than a geographical community is continuous and connected.

Australia’s public universities face new local competition from a rapidly-growing private sector challenging the market domination long-enjoyed by public universities, University of Melbourne Vice-Chancellor, Professor Glyn Davis warned in an address to the Sydney Institute last night (28February 2006).

The public system, he said, is poorly positioned to compete so long as Commonwealth Government rules impose an overwhelming sameness.
Professor Davis said most recent estimates suggest some 45,000 Australians enrolled with private providers during 2005. That is a 50 per cent rise in five years and the equivalent of another large university.
“Private providers have found an eager market of students wanting modest prices, quick access to the job market, local study by correspondence, rather than three year liberal arts and science qualifications.”
Facing this vibrant private market, he said, are 37 very similar public universities, all large and expensive to run, closely regulated by government, driven by legislation and budget incentives to be more alike than different.
Professor Davis pointed out that the competition is not only from domestic private providers.
“The American research university, Carnegie Mellon, will open its doors in Australia in a few months and another American player Kaplan, one of the most rapidly expanding education providers in the world, has acquired Tribeca, a large Australianprovider of vocational courses in the financial services industry
“These institutions represent a very different approach to higher education from the familiar campus of spires and ivy, using scale and standardised products to deliver accredited degrees at affordable prices. Research is not part of their mission. Business executives rather than academics decide what will be taught.”
Professor Davis said that to compete effectively Australia’s public universities must diversify - small as well as large, offering superb courses in a few specialist fields, working closely with particular industries or communities, committed to research and teaching yet each attracting a distinct and unique group of students, academics and partners.
Instead of only large, comprehensive, research-intensive universities, the public sector must offer choice – some familiar, others new small and flexible providers offering blended degrees and new subject areas.
He agrees this can be an awkward argument to sell. “The gradations between public universities are read as somehow more significant than the vast difference between public and private.
“However, public education must mirror the energy and originality found in new industries.
“As the Americans arrive, as more private colleges set up shop, as internet options provide alternatives to campus study, and as applications for traditional university courses stall or fall,
it’s time again for the bright people of the public sector to be inventive

Years ago , when roman stateman Cicro said ,: If you are going to convince me , you have to recognize my thoughs and if you are going to rocognize my thought , you have to learn to speak inmy own words,” Archimedes used to keep saying ,” could I have a lererage to move the world?” He seemingly did not know that one day the globe by disseminating data. British famous  authore Walter Scott, credited with the creation of the historical novel genre, has a noteworthy quotation ,” Society keeps its momentum with two daily movements: the first is the nudge coming from morning dailies and the other is the shove of afternoon newspapers.”
We are now living in a world dominated by mass media, which compel us  to see the world affairs from a special viewpoint.Iranian newspapers , however , are losing the ground to the state radio and TV. Subsequently, over 90 percent of them can not afford the colossal costs of running a modest paper. They heve not option but to get involved in media business so that they can obtain financial independence and stability.Iranian dailies and magazines, nevertheless , are in dire need of the government support to muster enough power to join the ranks of strong national , regional and international media. Right now the state TV has the lion share of the media market, making newspapers pie seem miniscule.We have to, first of all, create the proper social and cultural conditions for our printed medi though and this requires public support.

What we should we know about media when we want to make an ad ?

If you want to make an ad for your work the first step knows more about strong and weak points of different media.
This article teaches you something about how to use different types of media.

Outdoor advertising
There are many types of outdoor advertising like in subway station and tunnel, bus stop, hotels, parks, entrance of main store, on the drinking fountain and etc.
This kind of advertisement is the last way that you have to made people to buy your product. Try to use directional information in your billboard.
Design, shape, size light and position of the billboard help people to remember the name of the brand when they need it.
To prevent advertising wear out, try to change its design if you want to rent a billboard for a long time.
Remember the main element that makes your advertisement unforgettable is design. A good design must oblige people to stop and have second look on it and admire the thought that is hidden behind it.
It is good for the restaurants, hotels, shopping centers, and amusement parks and any kinds of business that deal with traveling costumers.

Internet
In today’s world internet is growing with a positive trend. Many companies build their own websites. Internet ad includes banners, registering your site in the famous search engine, sending E-mail and other types of classified ad put your ad in other sites that are related to your business.
Put enough information in your own websites to made visitors trust you, keep your site up to data, register yourself in famous search engines.

Direct Mail
It is a really good gun to target your market. You can send postal card, catalogs, brochures or a letter to absorb new costumers. Put something like a gift or a discounting coupon with expire date in it.
By this tool, you can give your business information to your costumers when they are in the special part of people.
It is a good way to give information about seasonal discounts, new products and services.

Magazine
They are a perfect way to advertise for magazine’s readers. Because readers trust to their magazine so you can use this relation in the best way.
Remember two-page ad has double cost but they don’t absorb double costumers. Your titer is your main part of ad so you should have special news in it. If you have many products don’t put all of them in one ad because readers only look each ad about 7 second. More information makes confused.

Newspaper
They publish it to give information so you can give your information to your costumers fast. Something like opening date of your new branch or your new products and act. But it is short period life is its weak point Yellow page
When somebody use a yellow pages he/ she is ready to buy something or a service so don’t give him/ her a chance to miss out.
You can use a colorful page or a plain typed listed under a category, try to use at least two colors in your box.

Radio
Psychologist believe 85% of science and information absorb by eyes, so this type of media has many limits, therefore try to choose your ad text carefully, repeat your name during an ad several times. Tell your name at the starting time. If you do good work on your ad music, slogans, and its text maybe you have the chance to stay in mind.

Television
Sight, music, motion make it the best and most popular type of media. It has the ability to make a want to a real need and create emotions.
Because it’s large amount of audience it give you the chance to make your name popular and famous.
Because of time limit it is better to use it for products that are understood easily, something like automobile, foods, clothes and etc.
With combination of different type of media you can guide people to your products.
At the end remember don’t forget the test. Test before and after an ad. The test before let you know some thing about public feed back at least you try not to make a dump.
And the test after, give you the chance to know which ones of your ads have positive effect and which ones have negative effect

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